A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science (MSc) in Consevation of Land Management,
Bangor University
ABSTRACT
The growing practices of baby maize are the same as those suggested for regular maize the performance. Deconsolidating is an important activity among other cultural activities of Maize production to ensure higher quality. The detachment must be achieved as and when tassels begin to appear (normally 40-45 days). The operation of detachment. The tassels from all the plants should be separated on a regular basis. Tassel's elimination Just 18 percent higher marketable baby maize yield than no delineating was achieved after its emergency. Although several experiments have shown that baby maize and decay have beneficial effects crop yield, baby maize negative detaasseling and grain yield. This paper will go through describe the baby corn production method followed by different cultural and scientific practices by the assessment of the current practice of baby corn breeding methods both conventional and advanced.
Key Words: Zea mays L., breeding, combining ability, path analysis, canonical correlation
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Baby corn is a cereal grain harvested early from maize when the stems are still low and weak. In comparison to the ripening of baby corn, whose ear is too stiff for human eating, it is usually served with whole cob. This may be eaten raw or made in other dishes as an ingredient. The ears are harvested before pollination and used as a vegetable, freshly consumed or packaged (Castro, Silva and Cardoso, 2013). Tropical environments are especially suitable for growing this kind of baby corn and can be cultivated for fresh consumption all year round as it made a positive impact on local communities /farmers because it grows well and they can make a profit from selling it and it is aa reliable source for them to grow and feed their families. (Castro, Silva and Cardoso, 2013). It has been as remarkable and swift to turn baby corn from its Centre of origin in Mexico into different parts of the world into a cultivated and food-producing plant. The cultivation of baby corn has been culture is introduced into many parts in Latin America, the Caribbean and eventually to the United States of America and Canada by members of various tribes in Central America and Mexico. baby corn was introduced to Europe by European explorers and eventually to Asia and Africa by merchants. Maize is one of the oldest known varieties of crop. This belongs to the Poaceae, Maydeas, and is the only member in the group to be cultivated (Mahapatra et al, 2018). The wild family of Zea mays are the other members of the genus Zea, commonly called teosinte, and the genus Tripsacum. It is generally agreed that both Zea Teosinte and Tripsacum are significant as potential sources of favorable characteristics in the development of baby corn based on the consistency of the hybridization between these plant groups and the cytogenetic studies. Tripsacum has little clear economic interest and as a source of forage, Teosinte does have some importance.
Corn is currently, after wheat, the world's second largest crop, and rice is the third largest (Alkahtani et al., 2020). It is the first cereal per hectare in grain yield and the second in overall production after wheat. baby corn, as human food, animal feed or a source of many agricultural commodities is economically significant worldwide. With baby corn the spat covering the ear helps to assimilate more material for the ear than other plant leaves. The placement of the leaves over the ear allows for more light to penetrate the plants, meaning that the longitudinal design of the plant is of added value. The illumination of the lower leaves is critical during the grain filling stage for continuous nutrient absorption and is also encouraged by upright leaves. Thus, there is a need to develop appropriate entrepreneurship and establishment of appropriate storage and marketing facilities and popularization of baby corn cultivation in agriculture. However, this is dependent on organization of markets and support from government sectors. Nevertheless, the nutritious importance of baby corn should be more popularized in other urban and rural areas. This is mostly because farmers are not aware of this and because there are no adequate warehouses and farms are very far from the market. If not, their nutritious value would be wasted. While baby corn is sold at home, it is sold without the necessary treatment. Where baby corn is planted and exported further, special focus needs to be paid to the processing of the cobs and they can be harvested. In recent past, baby corn has become a common item for human consumption. The growing practices of baby corn are the same as those suggested for regular baby corn is an important activity among other cultural activities (Moreira et al. 2010) Maize production to ensure higher quality. The detachment must be achieved as and when tassels begin to appear (normally 40-45 days). The operation of detachment. The tassels from all the plants should be separated on a regular basis. Tassel's elimination Just 18 percent higher marketable baby corn yield than no delineating was achieved after its emergency. Although several experiments have shown that baby corn and decay have beneficial effects crop yield, baby corn negative deta asseling and grain yield.
Aim
To investigate the applicability of conventional breeding and advanced breeding methods in baby corn breeding.
Objectives
• To assess the current practice of baby corn breeding methods both conventional and advanced.
• To identify the best baby corn breeding practice from comparing conventional breeding and advanced breeding methods.
• To assess the threat and opportunity available in both methods.
Data will be extracted by online research from published literature.
As baby corn is an excellent alternative for cultivation, Maize diversity and added value and industrial food development industries. Baby corn is an abundant nutritious plant in various forms of food perspective. It can be used in many crops as a fast cultivation Systems. This study will help to choose the suitable method for the production of baby corn.
You should probably include a paragrpah here stating how your study addresses these aims and objectives, e.g. via a (structured) Lit Review and an example Field study. You Will need to describe why you included the detailed Field study (as it was not your work – I don’t think) – so what additional insights does it provide). If you provide this descriptiuon here, then the reader will better undertand the structure of your thesis.
Background
Baby corn (Zea mays L.) is a very popular food in many countries. Global production of baby corn is 1016 million ton and productivity of 5.52 ton/ha (Yadav et al., 2015). Global production of baby corn has excelled rice in 1996 and wheat in 1997, which helped to secure its place in cereal (Yadav et al., 2015). Baby corn is basically considered as a vegetable and can be eaten raw. It is rich in vitamins B and C, potassium, fibers and carotenoids (Rodrigues et al., 2003). Baby corn is considered the safest form of baby corn as they are almost free of residual effects of pesticides for being covered by husk leaves (Camacho, 2015). As a result, popularity of baby corn is increasing with the course of time. Despite the increasing demand of baby corn in global market, baby corn production is declining in many countries. Cultivators do not have enough knowledge about the economic viability of the product, production cost and the appropriate selection of breeding methods (Rodrigues et al., 2003). Other important traits for baby corn cultivation are early ripening, low height, flowering uniformity and prolificacy by the growing demand and nearly inexistent production (Rodrigues et al., 2003). Brazil has a promising market for baby corn after U.S. and China. Currently, India has also achieved global attention for low cost labor as harvest and husking is done by hand in this country. India exports corn to Asian, European and Persian Gulf countries which is facilitated mainly for its geographical location (Camacho, 2015). However, many countries have lost their interest in cultivating baby corn for not having proper knowledge and resources. Unfortunately, there is very limited number of studies focusing on baby corn cultivation methods. This resulted in lack of high-yielding cultivars rather some early maturing cultivars were replaced to produce baby corn. For example, Brazil does not have any report on specific maize varieties suitable for baby corn production (Camacho, 2015).
However, it has been found out that some genotypes are better-suited for baby corn production among all available maize genotypes. As a result, in last six decades, the main focus was on the genetic improvement and introducing hybrid in the market (Yadav et al., 2015). The popularity of commercial hybrid corn seeds achieved a rapid rise in 20th century in U.S. With its increasing popularity and acceptance, it quickly replaced the conventional breeding method of open-pollinated seed. There are many advantages of using hybrid seeds. Such as fixed productivity, increased yield and high drought and heat stress tolerance. However, hybrid seeds cost two to three times more than open-pollinated seeds (Meyers and Rhode, 2020). Despite their high cost, hybrid breeding results higher yields, shortened maturation period, strong root, thicker stalks, disease and drought tolerance. This is why hybrid seeds rapidly replaced their open-pollinated counterparts from the 1930s. In 1940 50% of the corn crops were reported to be hybrid species (Meyers and Rhode, 2020). This increasing popularity of hybrid seeds can be threatening for the local cultivar that depends only on the conventional open-pollinated breeding method. Moreover, with the high yield the quality of the product from hybrid breeding system is also an issue that needs to be investigated. This study aims to investigate the applicability of conventional breeding and advanced breeding methods in baby corn breeding in global context.
The Agronomy of Production
There are generally two methods are used for producing baby corn. The first approach selects and plants a number of seeds that just create baby corn (Abbas et al., 2017). Many varieties are suitable, but specifically developed for farmers baby corn tend to make more ears per plant. The variety is selected to grow baby or field baby corn in the second method of development. The first ear is harvested for baby corn from the top of the field, while the second ear matures. Baby corn on the cob or a few days after hand-pick when the infant corn silks fall out of the ear tips. Baby corn typically ripens very rapidly and so the baby corn harvest must be timed cautiously so as not to end in mature baby corn hands. The cobs usually have a length of from 4.5 to 10 cm and a diameter from 7 to 17 mm. Baby corn farmers is eaten worldwide. In addition the baby corn drilling can be new or silage for the cattle baby corn is rich in foliate; in four ounces the B vitamin supplies 31% of the RDA. This also contains a decent supply of many other nutrients, including potassium in the same amount, 14% B-6, 10% riboflavin, 17% vitamin C, and 11% of adults in fiber every day (Banik and Sharma, 2009). The growth time is about 60 days and is used as a vegetable. Installation, physiological problems, cultural management, weeds protection, drainage, pest control and disease prevention, production, post-harvest, industrial return, manufacturing, marketing have been addressed (Castro et al., 2013).
Baby corn Breeding
Corn is native to America and since 3500 BC has been cultivated in Central America. The Incas, Aztecs, Mayans of Mexico and the cliffs of southwestern United States were important sources of this cuisine for them. Cortez took maize to Spain and soon reached France and Italy from there. Today, maize is the third largest in the world after wheat and rice production. The crop was produced by farmers around AD 1000 after a selection process during which the seeds of the most desirable plant were retained for seeds in the following season. Farmers in Mexico use this method to pick the largest ears to ensure the necessary washing of the breeds of baby corn ; this is also an annual ritual practice in the highlands of Central Mexico. The farmers must pick the best ore during the corn harvest, where the producer and the owner earn prizes, for these ceremonies. Local seed systems play a significant role in the domestication cycle, provided that they retain a large variety that is suited to small plots, in which farmers preserve in site plants that are found valuable in households, the market or for other purposes. The above has contributed to the identification of genetically diverse organisms in many agro ecosystems and, in fact, the genetic recombination of current communities is inadvertent or caused because of the exogamous state of baby corn.
The association of harvested plants with their wild families in different habitats, along with farming methods of managing many varieties concurrently, allows for crossbreeding and, to a large degree, defines the diverse and competitive genetic baby corn clusters of farms (Mahapatra et al, 2018). Baby corn is a peasant term used to mean that it is native to a culture, a city, a State or a nation and varies from a foreign product, a hybrid baby grain or an enhanced plant (Banik and Sharma, 2009). These consist of a heterogeneous species of plants, and its colour, shape, grain type, ear structure and distinguish them.
In general baby corn is available from the beginning of July to the end of September globally. Baby corn is traditionally sold in paper or cellophane bags by open bulk containers or dozens. Baby corn farmers have multiple marketing options available wholesaling, auction processing, cooperatives, small supermarkets, booths and the process of pick-it-self. The manufacturing business is for large, highly mechanized manufacturers only (Hooda and Kawatra, 2013). First of all market potential should be taken into consideration when preparing production, as the producers frequently overestimate their ability to compete in a certain region. With many vegetable crops, the annual yield of many farmers is less than an acre.
Marketing
Wholesale firms also negotiate with carriers to sell and export baby corn for a pre-determined amount. When farmers do not ship baby corn to the wholesaling market themselves through a contractor, the result would be the most volatile variations in prices. The farmers must, however, submit the baby corn for auction every week. Marketing cooperatives generally utilize a combined price and cost daily those shares in price fluctuations of all participating producers. Retail selling options, including booths (either own or other farmers) and pick-it-self companies, give farmers incentives to get rates better than those that farmers get in vast amounts. Farmers must pay extra publicity, building and operating costs and the delivery of customer services. Through "harvest-self" practices, farmers are saving money on harvest prices, but farmers must be prepared to take any waste and have buyers in their crop.
CHAPTER 2: LİTERATURE REVİEW
2.1. Distributions
In different regions different types of baby corn were developed starting with primitive tunicate baby corn , which was unquestionably widely distributed thousands of years ago. Maize was probably relatively high in mutations and partially released from natural selection pressure as a consequence of human intervention as the main factors involved in the initial development of maize. Since the initial early baby corn cobs and kernels were very small, the new structure variants should appear more widely than in the smaller direction (Almeida et al., 2005). For 4000 years or more, the size of the ear of baby corn has increased gradually. Selective breeding of maize by selection led to a human-dependent population, when a transition has entirely destroyed the ancestral features of nature’s survival. More than 3003 races and thousands of different varieties, which were suited to the most diverse ecological environments and tastes of their farmers, also developed a large range of forms. Such drastic shifts have been made possible by causes (Table 1). Baby corn is first of all a plant that causes people to pick it. In the case of baby corn , each plant is grown separately, unlike other cereals where plants are combined and grown. This shows the characteristics of each ear and makes it possible to pick specific plants that with certain grasses cannot be used (Bar-Zur and Saadi 1990).
Table 1: Maize use in tropical countries
Baby corn in the tropics is also subject to biotic stresses such as diseases, insects, and pests, including the parasitic plant Striga (Preetham et al., 2019). Farmers use local varieties or their own varieties or seed from open pollinated varieties and various types of hybrids. The risks of pollination and fertilization of female flowers in the hot and dry season, and those of harvest when the rains begin, advise against a corn crop in this period. Drought, acidic soils, and low nitrogen availability cause the greatest stresses in sub-tropical and mid-altitude baby corn environments (Adamtey, et al., 2016). Such a classification could be based on the experience accumulated by corn researchers and supported, whenever possible, by statistical and technical data from the Geographical Information System; it would be an important strategic tool for planning baby corn research and development and providing information to define priorities and budget allocations. Based on this, baby corn growing environment could be defined as tropical lowland, suitable for late germ plasm, hard, with resistance to mildew, stem borer and tolerance to drought (Kumar and Bohra, 2014). Individual plant behavior is directly affected by factors such as cloud cover and crop density, and many environments in which corn is grown are dependent on rainfall. This information with spatial databases could help to identify similar areas or regions to test the different germ plasms and technologies and support the adoption of favorable ones. These stresses significantly affect baby corn productivity in different regions and must be considered for a successful adaptation of baby corn genotypes in those environments. In regions with a bimodal rainfall pattern or where irrigation is available, a second baby corn sowing can be done, called the minor or winter period. There are also other variations in corn growing environments in the tropics. Baby corn flourishes on very humid and hot days and matures when the temperature begins to decline. In the Red River delta in Vietnam, the winter crop is sown from October to December, either by direct or transplanted sowing. Drought, planting too deep, adaptation to low temperatures, and sometimes frost damage are the major stressors in highland tropical baby corn environments. The classification of mega-environments in sub-Saharan Africa by applying multivariate statistical techniques to long-time agro climatic data available from regional agricultural research stations. In many tropical areas- except in the highlands and higher sub-tropical latitudes- baby corn can be grown most of the year if humidity is not a limiting factor. These issues are discussed in the chapter Biotic stresses that affect corn. Temperatures at planting and harvest are opposite to those at the main planting season. Some suitable baby corn environments in the tropics, however, have limitations due to radiation interception by the native vegetation layer above baby corn (Thavaprakaash et al., 2005). Summer is the most important season for its cultivation and begins with the beginning of the rains; in this season the corn is sown when the temperature has reached or is close to its maximum (Meenaet, et al., 2012). There is also a third minor growing season, in the spring, when it is sown in February or March and is usually harvested as green corn or as fodder; this shortens the growing period, which may be necessary as water could be insufficient if the crop were to reach full maturity. Understanding the socio-economic aspects of baby corn environments is essential for proper planning and for carrying out breeding and production programs. The winter and spring seasons require different classes of baby corn germ plasm and represent different environments from the main planting season. On the other hand, farmers in areas of safe rainfall or in irrigated crops more quickly adopt the use of hybrids and use higher levels of inputs; much of the winter corn is sown with hybrids. Baby corn is sown when temperatures are low, and the sowing period depends precisely on the moment when these are favorable for germination (from 8° to 10 ° C); the harvest is done in the dry period when temperatures are rising. There is only a small area of baby corn under irrigation, most of which is in subtropical environments (Table 2). The different types of corn varieties used by farmers are also an important component of the corn environment in the tropics. Information for this classification was collected through a survey based primarily on the experience and knowledge of baby corn researchers. Drought, excess moisture, nitrogen deficiency, acid soils, aluminum toxicity, and salinity are some of the most common biotic stresses in low-lying tropical corn environments. As a general rule, farmers on marginal lands or in environments unfavorable for their cultivation use seeds of their own varieties, thus lowering the cost of this input. A classification of baby corn growing environments indicating the area and characteristics required by the germ plasm to successfully grow baby corn in each country is undoubtedly a useful tool. Rain fed corn environments suffer from the erratic availability of moisture during the growing season (Saha and Mondal, 2006). Cultured corn is a fully domesticated crop and since ancient times humans and maize have existed and grown together. Corn is not wild in agriculture and cannot survive in nature, since it is entirely dependent on human treatment. As a C4 plant, with a high photosynthesis. Its rate of multiplication is 1:600-1000, viewed individually. Corn has optimum output capacity per unit area a day for carbohydrates (Mahapatra et al., 2018). As evidenced by the well-documented history of hybrid maize first in the United States and later in Europe, this was the first cereal that underwent rapid and significant technical changes as far as development was concerned.
Corn is a true equilibrium, like all other plants, between the root masses and the green mass of the stubble and leaves. If a limited element of one of the soil resources, such as water or nutrients would be translated to the root system with more assimilated materials that would promote root growth over growth of the rest of the plant (Kumar and Bohra, 2014; Saha and Mondal,2006; Sobhana et al., 2012). When heat, owing to its haze or cloudiness, is the growth limiting factor, the growth in the aerial component and root is dedicated to more specific materials the stem ratio is diminished.
Table 2: Baby corn growth requirement
2.2. Growing Requirements
In well drained soils, baby corn is better grown with strong water retention features. Irrigation is important for optimal pollination and kernel development if the farmer grows baby corn in the sandy soil. The pH of the land will be 5.8 to 6.6. Using soils and places with a southern exposure to ensure early growth and harvest as increasing early harvesting. The production of crops relies on the capture and conversion of solar radiation to biomass (Saha and Mondal, 2006). A foliar region, direction and length of the leaf determine the amount of incident radiation intercepted for the seed. In the case of baby corn, the area of the additional field has no effect on the interception of the light, it is necessary to decide the radiation interception up to 4. Planting and radiation detection density is a determining consideration of LAI (Yadav, et al., 2018; Thavaprakaash and Velayudham, 2010). Short-cycle cultivars produce fewer leaves to intercept radiation and require a higher plant density to achieve optimal yield compared to late cultivars (Kumar and Bohra, 2014).
Cultivars are classified as early or late ripening according to their thermal requirements in order to meet certain development stages. Thermal time is a calculation above and below the average temperature which is ideal for growth. Thermal times are grade-days Thermal time units. The developmental case, which characterizes cultivars sooner or later, normally uses flowering. High tropical cultivars tend to have lower base and/or optimal growth temperatures than those suited to low tropics (Sharma and Banik, 2012). The amount of radiation produced in the crop per unit of thermal time will significantly affect its yield.
The cumulative amount of radiation that is absorbed over the whole cycle of development is dependent on the time taken to attain optimum or average LAI interception because the plant does not cover entirely the soil) and the duration of the leaf's green region as well (Kumar, et al., 2015). The water deficiency and the low supply of nutrients are the experimental influences that increased the leaf’s expansion. For instance, for a tropical hybrid grown in seven low-nitrogen conditions the fraction of total radiation that was detected during the growing period was 0.46 compared with 0.60 in a high-nitrogen treatment. All crops had 70,000 plants per hectare area. Only 37 percent of radiation received during the season was intercepted with maximum LAI of around 2 and 58 percent were intercepted by high nitrogen cultures with maximum LAI of 4.5(Hooda and Kawatra, 2013). Upon flowering, the cycle of senescence inhibits the absorption of light; cancer, water stress, low fertility and genetic factors may enhance cell division.
2.3. Nutrients
The root system of corn is neither relatively simple nor highly competitive like that of species that have finer roots such as grasses.7 g / MJ, compared to 1.3 g / MJ in the high nitrogen content culture. There do not appear to be important differences in the mineral nutrition of temperate or tropical baby corn cultivars, so breeders who work in tropical maize have the advantage of also having the data that have been collected in work with temperate zone baby corn (Kumar, et al., 2016).8 in full of the season in tropical cultivars grown under favorable conditions. The sensitivity of CE to low nitrogen availability is greater than the sensitivity of leaf area development. The amount of nitrogen that moves from vegetative tissues to the ear during the kernel filling process varies considerably, with a range of 20 to 60% of total kernel nitrogen reported from absorption prior to a thesis. A culture with a 32% nitrogen content had an EC of 0.A corn crop that produces 4 000 kg / ha of grain requires around 100 kg / ha of nitrogen (N), 18 kg / ha of phosphorus (P) and 68 kg / ha of potassium (K). The efficiency of the use of nitrogen in photosynthesis is higher in baby corn so that a comparatively low intrinsic concentration does not limit the productivity relative to other crops at suboptimal nitrogen supply levels the conversion efficiency is seriously affected (Preetham et al., 2019). Most of the potassium required by the crop is absorbed before flowering and much of it ends up in the aerial part at maturity. Nitrogen indices at harvest kg nitrogen in grain / kg nitrogen in biomass above ground are higher than dry matter indices at the same time, around 0. The root system of corn is capable of absorbing nutrients throughout the life of the plant, but the absorption declines during the last part of the cycle that corresponds to the filling of the grain and as the senescence of the lower leaves begins (Rathika, et al., 2013; Sinha, 2017). The nitrogen deposited on the stem is the one that is first mobilized to the ear and the amount of nitrogen mobilized depends on the cultivar and on the amount and timing of nitrogen application from.6 to 0. Phosphorus has a similar distribution to nitrogen, except that a higher proportion of the crop's requirements are absorbed after flowering (Preetham et al., 2019). The yield response of corn to nitrogen fertilization is generally positive and linear up to high doses when compared to other crops (Table 3). The nitrogen concentration in the leaves of tropical corn tends to be low (1-4%) compared to C3 cereals such as wheat.
Table 3 Types of corn
2.4. Water
Furthermore, prolonged stomata closure reduces the amount of CO2 available for photosynthesis, thus lowering the EC. The environmental factors that affect the closure of stomata in the field are soil moisture and the demand for evaporation. Environmental factors affect the degree of opening of the stomata and can restrict water loss by the crop. In the field there are additional losses of water due to evaporation from the soil. One cubic millimeter of water is evaporated by 2. Only a fraction of the dry matter produced forms the grain, which means that a crop with good water availability uses about 800 to 1,000 grams of water for every gram of grain produced. A freely transpiring corn crop transpires about 80-90% of potential evaporation, which occurs due to environmental radiation, temperature, and relative humidity. Under these conditions, leaf temperature is generally somewhat lower than air temperature and the water use per unit surface area of leaf perspiration is determined by the energy balance of the crop surface (Rathika, et al., 2008). Only 3% of the total radiation that falls on the crop is used for photosynthesis. Part of the remaining energy heats the foliage and this heat is dissipated through perspiration and the evaporation of water from the leaves. Since carbon dioxide enters the leaf through the same openings that water uses to exit; there is a good relationship between the amount of water transpired and the dry matter produced by the crop. When transpiration is limited by the closure of the stomata, the crop becomes disconnected from the environment and the temperature of the leaves increases, which can have damaging effects on the metabolism of the crop. A well-irrigated corn crop transpires about 350 grams of water for every gram of dry matter produced on the ground 4 Mj of solar radiation.
2.5. Plant Breeding methods
Genetic manipulation is one of the most important biotechnological methods in baby corn. Increasing the opportunities open to plant breeders is the addition of new varieties that pass characteristics that are not present in baby corn or can be strengthened and developed and that were impractical to use traditional breeding methods. The germ plasm of temperate zone baby corn has been successfully transformed. Pure lines of tropical baby corn germination which can be regenerated by tissue cultivation have currently been reported. This indicates the growth of transformed tropical baby corn with insect tolerance (Mahapatra et al., 2018). The use of molecular genetics and genetics in tropical baby corn breeding will be addressed later in this chapter. These are resources that farmers have established over time by scientific selection and that are kept and treated in a dynamic seed and gene exchange network year after year (Preetham et al., 2019). While some suggest that the domestication and control of species causing the depletion of genetic variants can be enabled by others, rural societies preserved for centuries tremendous genetic diversity which is now the basis from which genetic capital can be accessed for the structured institutional framework through germ-based banks (Saha and Mondal,2006).
Many geneticists believe that present corn crops are a result of its great chromosomal cordon and its simple interbreeding with fertile hybrids (Preetham et al., 2019). In several countries the ethnic makeup of the crop is extremely varied and has made it difficult to classify the potential associations between these two regions in different studies. There are many studies in several countries. The social and agronomic features for the description of present races shall be considered.
2.6. Breeding Technology
Conventional breeding of plants is greatly different from natural breeding. This will create biological systems capable of adapting; it will ensure the development of an organism with properties that adapt it to the various environmental conditions and ensure that the species continues. Precisely these adaptive mechanisms are broken down by artificial selection and modern plant breeding, producing variations of genes that can barely survive.
The effect on the environment or traditional farmers' varieties of conventionally-created crops has typically not contributed to regulatory checks but not to conventional crop restrictions, although there are issues related to the transition of genetically engineered crops (Abbas et al., 2017). Many of the major food crops in the world will not originate from their primary producing zones; however, they originate from many separate "centers of origin" and have been relocated by relocation and trade to new development regions. The planet is growing heavily domesticated crops, and there have scarcely been significant issues with movement out of production areas (Sobhana et al., 2012). Hybrids between cultivated and wild species have not been formed permanently except when grown in the center of their roots, such as potatoes in South America or maize in Mexico. Gene exchange between cultivated and wild plants is recorded in several ways but this has usually not been considered a concern. It does not only make inter-specific (inter-species) and inter generic (inter-genera) crossings between different species of the same species (Mahapatra et al., 2018). Such crosses produce hybrids: a combination of two distinct but compatible animals or chromosomes, leading to offspring that have unknown chromosomes that are distinct from the ancestors. It is one of the methods that have rendered much of the different facets. Since the middle of the 20th century this approach has been used.
Baby corn breeders in the tropics have so far used only a relatively minor of the genetic diversity and possible heterotic variations found in tropical germ plasm for the production of hybrids. Aravinth et al., (2011) pointed out that this condition may be partly due to the large number of races and conifers that must be studied it may also be due to the involvement of breeders in short-term gains through the use of heterotic models and their well-established combinations. Baby corn breeders worldwide have heterotic habits of concern and interest. In most baby corn breeding programs in the tropics however, heterotic models have not been developed or consistently improved. As explained in the General considerations on baby corn development in the tropics, the variety of environments in which baby corn is grown in the tropics is very large and requires heterotic models for specific specifications of the various environments. The preferred approach to discovering heterotic patterns should include crosses between all races, cultivars, and populations in a number of dialers to allow direct comparisons; this, however, is not feasible because of the amount of crossovers and work involved) (Yadav, et al., 2018; Sobhana et al., 2012). A more realistic approach may be used in crossover testing to evaluate heterotic trends between cultivars if suitable tests are available. These populations must be continuously improved through an improvement scheme among them. Line crosses between populations showed a superiority of 4 to 16% over line crosses within populations. Generally, a minimum of two populations is required to develop a hybrid breeding program. The Pandey and Gardner survey of baby corn improvement research conducted by national programs in the tropics indicated that 39. Populations should have the ability to tolerate inbreeding stress and produce a high frequency of superior, high-yielding inbred lines; they should also have good combining ability and desirable agronomic characters (Thavaprakaash and Velayudham, 2010). Recurrent selection schemes seem to be more complicated and require more resources when in reality their demands are the same as those of recurrent selection schemes carried out in two separate populations. The behavior of hybrid combinations developed from S3 lines in 11 populations that had been improved by the recurrent selection method between populations and within populations (Table 4). This increases the opportunities to select for alleles and combinations of alleles by strengthening the expression of heterosis (Thavaprakaash et al., 2005). Some line crosses between populations yielded up to more than 12% than crosses derived from corresponding improved populations through within-population selection schemes.3% of resources were dedicated to developing hybrids and 85% of baby corn breeders were involved in activities related to them; however, they did not report any type of activities involving recursive reciprocal selection for inter-population breeding(Kumar, et al., 2015).The importance of germ plasm sources and methods for the formation of new combinations and populations have been described in the chapter baby corn improvement - recurrent selection. However, a decision on the number of populations to manage in a hybrid breeding program depends on the number of environments to which it will be directed and the special populations that are needed for their research and development (Swamy et al., 2014). Therefore, long-term genetic advances can be obtained by the continuous improvement of heterotic populations and by the use of inbred lines extracted from advanced populations in the development of hybrids. When resources human and financial are limited, it is more prudent to work only with two superior populations that show high heterosis instead of trying to manage several populations.
Table 4 Baby corn cross breeding
Since 1930, the only major change in the development of hybrid technology in the United States of America has been the production and use of single crosses instead of double crosses. Important stages in hybrid research and development are:
(1) Inbreeding of open-pollinated cultivars or F2 populations to develop pure lines.
(2) Evaluation of lines for their combining ability.
(3) Combination of the best lines for the production of different types of hybrids, and
(4) Testing and identification of superior hybrids for use by farmers.
A variation of these standard procedures applied in the tropics is the development of non-inbred parents for the production of mixed hybrids (non-inbred x inbred). Other variations to a standard hybrid development program could be: diversity and quantity of source materials; number of self-fertilizing generations of the inbred line; Selection criteria; stage in which the lines are tested, that is, early or late tests; type of testers used; clean lines maintenance method; prediction of the behavior of crosses, and finally, the test of hybrids. Some of these points will be discussed in the following paragraphs (Sharma and Banik, 2012) 20% in the Syn-2 generation. When large numbers of superior inbred lines and combinations of their crosses are available in tropical germ plasm, there should be greater use of narrow-based F2 and synthetic populations for the development of new inbred lines. In temperate germ plasm in the United States of America and in Europe inbred lines are normally taken from F2 populations of crosses between two or more superior pure lines. This procedure will be useful for special traits such as drought and insect tolerance. Inbreeding depression for grain yield across populations fell from 39% in C0 to 35% in C2; similar results were obtained in four medium maturity baby corn and in four subtropical populations. However, the impact of such a procedure on long-term improvement is attracting considerable interest. The Suwan 1 population developed in Thailand through an S1 selection scheme showed less inbreeding depression and produced a higher percentage of usable and vigorous lines compared to other populations that were not subjected to a selection of selfed progeny baby corn populations could be improved in their yields and have less inbreeding depression by recurrent S3 selection methods involving inbreeding and selection of selfed parents (Kumar, et al., 2016).
If the recurrent selection scheme used for population improvement has been involved in any selection of selfed parents, this will help to build tolerance to inbreeding and will improve the capacity of the population to produce more ductile and vigorous lines. It is to be hoped that those populations improved through the S3 recurrent selection scheme may be a source of superior and vigorous inbred lines. The S3 selection presented a shorter female a thesis-flowering interval, but an increase in height, in days to female flowering and in grain moisture.41% in S1 and 3. The frequency of vigorous and usable lines of such narrow genetic base materials is higher than the frequency of broad genetic base populations (Kumar et al., 2017).In a study involving four populations of tropical baby corn and their randomly crossed and selfed generations, linear gain per cycle across populations of 7.The source efficiency of the populations in a baby corn hybrid development program depends on their ability to produce a high frequency of vigorous, agronomic ally stable, productive, well-behaved pure lines and high combining ability.
2.7. Methods for the development of inbred lines
Picking of pedigrees is the most common breeding system used for growing inbred lines which primarily includes the self-fertilization of individual plants chosen over many generations. Crossbreeding between sisters in the same family often prevents rapid loss of force and increases diversity, allowing recombination and differentiation of loci that are more than one allele of the offspring, giving breeders more possibilities to choose advantageous characteristics. For the development of inbred lines, there are different generations of self-fertilization and crossing with the sister lines, although they are typically from four to ten generations. The approach and performance of the production of clean lines is dependent on the breeder's skills, the origin of species, the tools available as well as the testing and assessment of lines (Rathika, et al., 2013). Developing superior inbred lines that can result in efficient hybrid combinations entail very nuanced genetic and climate interactions and often needs very useful feedback from plant breeders over a long time.
In the United States of America, 51% of inbred line development efforts are focused on line recycling or the development of a second line cycle, which will most likely continue to be the most important method for the development of pure lines in the 1990s. Backcrossing is used for line development as a modification or in combination with the pedigree method (Rathika, et al., 2008 ; Singh et al., 2010). The test crosses are evaluated in replicate assays and F1 plants whose cross tests are better than the upper line x the tester is presumed to have received a superior gamete from that source. At present there are no reports indicating that such completely homozygous pure lines have been used successfully in the production of superior hybrid combinations. the instantaneous development of completely homozygous lines by means of the haploid duplication method; these techniques have been discussed in the chapter Cytogenetics of tropical baby corn (Sharma and Banik, 2014). However, garmete selection is not very widespread in pedigree and backcross methods, although its characteristics are of interest to some breeders and it has several applications. The selection of gametes for higher line development by sampling selected gametes from higher lines was. A molecular marker system supported by QTL analysis for the strengthening of inbred lines through the simultaneous transfer of desirable and superior QTL alleles from unadapted donor germ psalm in already established inbred lines. Various circumstances and characteristics for which backcrosses may be useful in the development of pure lines (Adamtey, et al., 2016). The frequency of haploids is still low, which limits the number of homozygous diploid lines to be tested in hybrid combinations. In the United States of America, 17% of all efforts to develop pure lines were directed at backcrosses’ this scheme a selected line is crossed with a random sample of pollen from the population from which superior gametes are sought; the F1 plants and the selected lines are crossed in tests with a common tester and at the same time they are selfed (table 4). Modified versions of various classes of inbred lines have been developed by backcrossing and selecting the original inbred material that carries a specific gene, trait, or chromosomal rearrangement. Individual plants from this source of population could be used with the superior lines and at the same time be selfed (Kumar and Bohra, 2014). Other methods have also been used for the development and improvement of inbred lines. Baby corn breeders in China, India, Eastern Europe and the United States of America are working on the haploid duplication method and have produced inbred lines using this new technique (Meenaet, et al., 2012).
2.8. Recycling lines
In tropical germ plasm, if the first generation of lines is not sufficiently selected to give superior hybrid combinations, their improvement through recycling may become absolutely necessary. All hybrid baby corn breeding programs must, at some point in their development, initiate the recycling of inbred lines. One reason may be that there is only one pair of heterotic populations available and that the program does not have the resources to use more populations or that there is a resistance to using exotic germ plasm. Sometimes a good inbred line must be improved for a specific character or for introgression of a given character. Recycling provides a mechanism for obtaining new and improved lines (Chauhan, et al., 2010). A long-term hybrid production program will continue to improve populations for crossbreeding performance through reciprocal recurrent selection to develop new routinely inbred lines and to recycle pure lines as required.
2.9. Evaluation and testing of inbred lines
The performance of heterosis exhibited by inbred lines is the product of the behaviour per se of those lines and of their general and specific combinatorial ability in hybrid combinations. Sometimes line testing for the evaluation of hybrids begins only at the fifth selling and it is at this time that the number of lines is reduced to a manageable number. The early testing procedure and several authors have highlighted the advantages of this. In tropical baby corn germ plasm, the frequency of higher inbred lines in salted progeny from many populations is quite low, and heterotic patterns are not well established. Therefore, it is prudent to evaluate the performance of the test crosses as early as possible to rule out a large number of undesirable lines that are probably not used. It is advisable to do the initial test crosses no further than the S2 or S3 generations (Neupane, et al., 2017). Many breeders more than in the past, are testing the lines in early generations of self-fertilization. A second system of development of inbred lines is based on the evaluation of the lines for the behaviour of hybrids in early selling generations. The behaviour per se of inbred lines and their characters are not closely related to their behaviour in hybrid combinations. Development of inbred lines is accomplished based on phenotypic selections and within ear-per-row progeny during the initial self-fertilization generations - usually three or four (Singh, et al., 2012).
2.10. Development and use of testers
A test inbred line will be useful for assessing combinatorial ability and for identifying specific single cross combinations. Detailed information on testers and their use has been published by various authors (Chauhan, et al., 2010). At first it was believed that a heterogeneous cultivar such as an open-pollinated broad-based variety could be a good tester to measure general combinatorial ability, while a tester with a narrow genetic base such as an inbred line or a simple hybrid could be used to measure the specific combining ability. The testers are used to establish heterotic models, improvement between populations, formation and improvement of new heterotic groups, evaluation of the combinatorial ability of the lines and identification of the specific combinations of hybrids (Katoch and Kumar 2014). This procedure is not practical in the inbreeding development process because it requires a large number of crosses and, therefore, the first evaluation of inbreeding lines is done by means of behavioural crossing tests. Test crosses in a baby corn improvement program have two objectives:
Evaluation of the crossbreeding value of genotypes for population improvement, and
Evaluation of the combinatorial ability of pure lines for breeding. A survey on the use of testers in the United States of America showed that 89% of breeders use an inbred line tester and 11% use a simple hybrid tester.
However, recent studies suggest that an inbred tester line offers relatively more information on general combining ability than on specific combining ability (Chauhan, et al., 2010). A single hybrid tester may be useful for three-way combinations and double crosses and a non-inbred tester may be necessary to identify mixed hybrid combinations - inbred lines x non-inbred lines (Sharma and Rana, 2014). The best and most complete information on the behaviour of inbred lines in hybrid combinations is obtained through the analysis of dialogic crosses, which offers information on the general and specific combinatorial ability. In a hybrid breeding program, testers can be used for various purposes and it is necessary to produce and use appropriate testers depending on the objectives to be achieved.
2.11. Expected performance advantage of various types of hybrids
Interfamily hybrids have the greatest potential among non-inbreed hybrid combinations. Those interfamily hybrids were equal to or better in performance than other combinations of non-inbred hybrids or inbred x non-inbred hybrids. First, baby corn is grown in a multitude of environments where farmers need different types of cultivars; second, despite half a century of research and development of hybrid corn, only a small area is planted with hybrids as we see in table 5. Hybrid combinations of inbred lines - especially single crosses - have the advantage of uniformity and of reaching maturity at the same time; however, these two facts are less important in tropical environments where the size of the farms is small and where the harvest is predominantly done by hand. It is easier to manage two hybrid parents both in the maintenance of the parents and in the production of seeds (Chauhan, et al., 2010). A better yield can be obtained from a cross of populations following a reciprocal recurrent selection scheme. Currently, in many of the temperate baby corn zones the trend is towards a greater use of single crosses; however, the situation in the tropical zone is different. However, in these hybrids it is easier to produce the parents -two parents can be maintained without difficulty- and the price of the seed will be low.
Table 5 Performance advantage of various types of hybrids
The role of heterosis and suitable hybrids in increasing the productivity of the baby corn crop cannot and should not be discussed; what must be critically analyzed is the type of germ plasm -open-pollinated varieties or hybrids- that will be most appropriate for the circumstances, and in the case of hybrids, which will be the most appropriate. This does not mean that hybrids are not appropriate for tropical environments (Rautaray, et al., 2017). As mentioned earlier in this chapter, the first hybrids were the product of crosses between two varieties; this procedure has now evolved into the use of inbred line crosses (Chauhan, et al., 2010). Non-inbred lines and mixed hybrids have a greater space in tropical environments and must be critically analyzed and exploited. Hybrids between synthetics can be more uniform and have higher yields than hybrids between populations and between varieties. These hybrid families were also comparable to inbred hybrids - three-way crosses and double crosses - but they had lower yields than good single hybrids. Populations and varietal crosses developed through an inter-stock breeding scheme can have the advantage of high yields. This promoted a local seed production industry and reduced the need to import seeds of the commercial double hybrids. Some of those sibling family hybrids that were delivered to commercial cultivation had higher yields and stability than many of the commercial double hybrids, and parent maintenance and seed production were much simpler. The development and use of sibling family hybrids with a high degree of parental heterosis of up to 54% among families (Neupane et al., 2011). Among the hybrids not formed from inbred lines, the hybrids between populations and between varieties offer fewer advantages with respect to heterosis and increased yields. The depression in yields caused by the use of the F2 seed will be less than in other types of hybrids. Sister or half-sister families showing high combinatorial ability in a breeding program between or within populations could produce highly productive hybrids.
CHAPTER 3 EXAMPLE FİELD STUDY
3.1. Methodology
In this research the “Studies on genetic potential of baby corn (Zea mays L.) hybrids for yield and quality traits” example has been taken into consideration which was conducted by Dhasarathan (2012). The study area was a valley region (walled by hillocks) and a subtropical climate, much of which was rainfall in the rainy season from May to October. The experimental site was a subtropical environment with a high number of rainfalls (2,450 mm). During Monsoon season, the mean daily temperature is between 23 and 320C (June-October). The site's annual average precipitation is 2450 mm. The dependent on the soil area consists of a type Paleudal, acidic in nature, low N(253,7 kg / ha) and low P(11,2 kg / ha) in response, moderate potassium(K) (259,9 kg / ha), and oxidative in reaction (pH5,3). The study consists of eleven simpler to perform lines of baby corn among which eight were composite materials, one hybrid and two local rows. The exploratory area was prepared by using power tractor accompanied by leveling during March. Rain storms started in April and maize has been planted with a spread of 50 cm row to row, with planting of 25 cm to line. Apply basal to nitrogen (N), which is equal to fulfilling the criteria (60:60:40 kg N, P2O5, and K2O / ha), well-decomposed FYMs (containing 0,5 percent N and 0,2 percent avg. of P2O 5) and P requirements were added to rock phosphate. A core system (Blake and Hartge in 1986) using core 5 was used to assess bulk density (BD). The samples of the soil were drained from air by a 2 m mm seven and were analyzed by Piper, SOC by Nelson and Sommers, and N by a permanganate method (Subbiah and Asija 1956); Bray and Kurtz, 1945 and 21 NH4OAC, neutral standard, were available for P. Their pH was tested, and their samples were analysed for pH. At 30 days after seeding (DAS) and 60 DAS by SPAD meter, the chlorophyll index for corn leafs was calculated. P is important because soil is acidic in this area and P availability is very poor. P supplementation is needed. The harvest index (HI), as a percentage (percent), was calculated using the following formula. Intensity of disease Also studied were the intensity of TLB, MLB (Maydis leaf blight), and ironin baby corn. The experiment was designed and replicated three times in the randomized design (RBD). Grain yield and stove yields at harvest were recorded for the gross plot size. HI = (Cost / biological outcome) to 100 Seed / grain output Biological output = grain output + stover output Soil analysis Initial and post-harvest composite soil spectrum were taken (500 g sample, composite, 1 sample per complot), 0-15 cm depth .0m. HI = (Economic output / biological output) Exserohilum turcicum was the TLB and Puccinia polysora the MLB caused by the Drechslera maydis and iron (Xaba, et al.,2013). Plant sampling Five plants were tagged from the base to the end of the longest tassel branch randomly sampled from each plot and plant height measured 4 cm, 8 cm, 5.0 m x 4. The baby corn yield parameters (cob length, with weight, etc. No x Maximum disorder size Statistical analysis Statistical analysis The experimental results for each research parameter have been analyzed using the "F" test standard mean error (SEm+), and the Lowest Significant Difference (LSD), which is 5 percent (p=0,05), is tested for each research parameter, using the measurement methodology. Unlike the grasses native to Europe, baby corn is a "C4 plant". Twelve weeks after sowing, the baby corn kernel has grown into a plant several meters high .5 meters deep; the roots need about one meter on each side. According to the grain shape, maize is assigned to seven different types: tooth maize - which is currently of the greatest economic importance, hard maize, puffed maize, sweet maize, starch maize, waxy maize and husk maize (Wailare, 2014). Corn hybrids and GM baby corn ensured enormous increases in yield, but also bitter disputes. After two to three months, the cob will bear a few hundred grains in six to 20 rows, depending on the variety (Roopa, et al., 2013). It can use carbon dioxide even in low concentrations for photosynthesis better than the European C3 plants. The development took its course mainly in the 20th century (Preetham et al., 2019). Yellow and white varieties are certainly the best known, but there are also shades from reddish brown to black. The male flowers are located on the tip of the shoot and have the shape of a long panicle. The feminine flower is what we occasionally put on the table: the thick piston, encased in the hibiscus leaves and with a tassel on the tip.Other cases of selection and diversification of the types of baby corn were repeated by farmers from other continents where baby corn spread in post-Columbian times. 4% of their resources were devoted to these activities. In Africa diseases and drought, in Asia diseases and maturity, in Latin America plant height and diseases and in the Middle East maturity and type of grain, were the characteristics that needed further research (Dutta, et al.,2015). In such circumstances, it is not surprising that after half a century of baby corn research work in the tropics, 61% of the area is planted by farmers with their own varieties or with primitive varieties baby corn. In these circumstances, close collaboration with farmers to combine their local varieties and their environmental knowledge with the genetic knowledge of breeders can lead to a better use of the genotype x environment interaction and the development of varieties that are more acceptable and suitable for farmers' needs (Hardon, 1995). However, these efforts have not been equally successful in those areas where the variability of microenvironments and farmer selection criteria are too broad to be adequately channeled through centralized breeding activities. In all cases, the type and level of research that a country should follow was indicated depending on the soundness of the research program and the importance of baby corn in its economy. The baby corn yield calculated based on the area / day concept is more appropriate. Duvick (1996), has pointed out that during the last 50 years corn breeding methodologies have not changed; in general terms, the infrastructure and facilities for experimentation have changed. Reports are also available on priorities for baby corn research in some regional centers; Researchers in southern Africa, in a work aimed at defining regional priorities, consider that resistance to drought, weeds, striped virus and Striga were the main objects of study for the improvement of baby corn (Gelaw et al, 1989). Institutionalized and centralized breeding of baby corn by professional breeders has been largely directed at favorable environments, in which it has been quite successful.
3.2. Results of the Field Study
Implementing the FYM along with Rock phosphate helps to preserve and eat properly Soil productivity at the right dosage in baby corn fields Macro and micro mineral replenishing most insufficient which helps to get the maximum yield of grain and the maize variety harvest table. Bio manure was The SOC, usable N , P and K in the soil reported change, maintain the quality of the soil Implementing the FYM along with Rock phosphate helps to preserve and eat properly Soil productivity at the right dosage in maize fields Macro and micro mineral replenishing most insufficient which helps to get the maximum yield of grain and The maize variety harvest table. Bio manure was the SOC, usable N, P and K in the soil reported change, maintain the quality of the soil. The maize leaves' chlorophyll index (CI) varieties at 30 and 60 DAS varies considerably. The maximum CI at 60 DAS in variety DA 61 A followed by RCM 1-3 and RCM-76 were substantially reported and a minimum CI for variety RCM 1-1 was observed in both the 30 and 60 DAS in both experimental years. This increase in the chlorophyll content in leaves can be explained by improved diet by the organic production method and by variable characteristics Cultivation period of various varieties has been shown to be of the shortest length for green cob production, following DA 61A (80 days) and RCM 1-2 (85 days) for the variant RCM-75 and RCM-76.The shortest crop period for the species QPM 9 (70-75 days) was therefore reported, but the yield of this species was very low compared to other crops. In contrast with better ones, the length of crops in local varieties was observed (95-100 days). Cultivation time was close to that of green cob for seed development of various varieties. The seed production DA 61 A took 110 days, and RCM 1-2 (115 days) was observed. It took 125-130 days for local varieties to mature for the processing of crop. Severity / intensity of the disease the analysis showed that the response to differential conditions in organic production was clear in baby corn varieties. In contrast to others, the disease incidence for TLB was lower among the varieties DA-61A (PDI = 9.1) followed by Vijay composite (PDI = 7.3) and Hemant (PDI = 9.6). Local white (PDI=7.2) followed by RCM-11 (PDI=7.4) and DA-61A (PDI=8.4) was reported as lowest in the case of rust. For MLB, the RCM-12 cultivar (PDI=9.1) and DA 61A (PDI=9.2) and RCM- 76 (PDI=9.6) were reported at lower disease strain. Cultivars such as DA 61A, RCM 76 and Hemant may be tolerant of the above mentioned diseases, which eventually help achieve better organic production. Implementing the FYM along with Rock phosphate helps to preserve and eat properly Soil productivity at the right dosage in maize fields Macro and micro mineral replenishing most insufficient which helps to get the maximum yield of grain and the maize variety harvest table. Bio manure was The SOC, usable N , P and K in the soil reported change, maintain the quality of the soil Implementing the FYM along with Rock phosphate helps to preserve and eat properly Soil productivity at the right dosage in maize fields Macro and micro mineral replenishing most insufficient which helps to get the maximum yield of grain and The maize variety harvest table. Bio manure was the SOC, usable N, P and K in the soil reported change, maintain the quality of the soil the crop plant’s growing activity is reflected in its final plant height at maturity. In both years the plant height during harvest was greatly determined by varieties. The maximum plant height was in RCM 75 (251.8) with an RCM of 1-3 (248.3 cm) and Hemant (246.3 cm) while the lowest plant height was in QPM 9 (210.0 cm), followed by the local yellow (224.1 cm) in DA of 61 A (222.9 cm). Quite long, sometimes stuck plant due to the wind causes substantial loss of yield.
CHAPTER 4 DISCUSSION
The adaptability of the germ plasm to specific farmer conditions, the suitability of the germplasm to marginal environments, the acceptability of the farmers, the economic stability or other similar characteristics that are important from the farmer's point of view are generally not considered. As long as the local varieties exceed the yields of the introduced varieties and of the improved varieties to some extent, they will continue to be cultivated and maintained (Muthukumar et al., 2007). The study showed that 96% of the baby corn breeders were working on improving yields and that other characteristics that deserved less attention were resistance to capsizing, tolerance to insects, photosynthetic efficiency, panicle size, stability, protein quality, plant type, and prolificacy (Sinha, 2017). In similar work, baby corn researchers from one Asian region considered drought, early maturity, flooding, baby corn, borers, low fertility and acid soils, disease resistance, and quality of the grain at harvest time were the priority characteristics for baby corn improvement in their region (Bhattarai et al., 2018). This imbalance of research efforts between tropical and temperate baby corn is even more exacerbated if the diversity of environments in which tropical baby corn is grown and in which each environment presents specific and important problems that must be taken into account is taken into account (Neupane et al., 2017). The improvement of baby corn, similar to the improvement of any other species, is still within the domain of art and experience, an environment in which farmers have great advantages. Reported on the results of a survey of 48 baby corn researchers from Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the Middle East on the characteristics they considered important for baby corn improvement. To carry out a scheme of this type, two prerequisites are necessary: (a) the breeder must know the work area, and (b) the improvement work must be done within that area (Sundeep and Dawson, 2015) (Rakib et al., 2011). There were 194 stations working mostly on tropical baby corn in 50 developing countries excluding China which had 55 stations working mostly on temperate baby corn. For many tropical baby corn environments, the currently available germplasm has a reasonably high yield potential (Rathika et al., 2014). Well above the best results obtained in the fields of good farmers. By the time Christopher Columbus arrived in America and "discovered baby corn," farmers had already moved baby corn germplasm from its center of origin in Mesoamerica north into Canada and south into Chile (Sharma and Banik, 2015). Across all continents, performance was the priority element and the other characteristics varied from continent to continent.
4.1. The threat and opportunity available in both methods
There is another aspect of the work of farmers that must be mentioned. They had successfully transformed the baby corn germplasm using the simplest forms of selection (Hussain, 2014). Choosing the most desirable plants and types of ears - and in that process they had converted their germplasm into different varieties that were grown in different parts of America. Improvement in many of the developing countries began in the agricultural schools, which had the highest concentration of scientific personnel (Mahapatra et al., 2018) later, between the 1960s and 1970s, national agricultural research institutions were established and became important centers for baby corn research. Other characteristics indicated by a few breeders and therefore considered low priority were reduced plant height and ear insertion, early maturity, drought tolerance, and grain type (Bindhani et al., 2008). The importance of local specificity and the need to take advantage of genotype x environment interactions to achieve sustainable productivity gains across all environments in which baby corn is grown in the tropics should be given priority importance. Miranda (1985), suggested that breeding methodologies for tropical regions - such as Brazil - should be considered in relation to the areas under study. These characteristics are, however, complex and difficult to analyze and manage.
In the scheduling of investigations (Sharma et al., 2020). In the same way, more importantly, it is that the application of the methodology is done with precision and adequate execution (Scaria et al., 2016). Today there are numerous improvement schemes, each of which has advantages and disadvantages, so an improvement technique should be considered as a means and not as an end (Palai et al., 2018). Some of these are still used today, especially where baby corn has been a traditional crop for many centuries (Smith and Paliwal, 1996). Breeding methodologies have not changed much in the last half century, but their choice should depend on a better selection of objectives and strategies to adequately handle specific problems for pre-established areas. How to achieve these results, appropriate breeding technologies, agronomy, and seed production will be discussed in detail in the next chapters. This is also being used to emphasize the need for participatory breeding in which farmers are part of the selection process for new and improved varieties (Hardon, 1995). The lack of adequate seed production programs is a critical factor in increasing baby corn productivity.
4.2. The current practice of Baby corn breeding methods both conventional and advanced
From the time the domestication of baby corn began until the 19th century, its improvement was done by farmers who selected the seeds of their preferred plants for the next planting (Gupta et al., 2019). The situation under which a certain germplasm will be cultivated must be carefully considered when planning research and production strategies. Carefully studied (Hekmat et al., 2016). The two factors that explain the achievements of the most successful baby corn programs are the development of germplasm acceptable to farmers and the availability of high-quality seeds. Unsurprisingly, their analysis showed great variation among the different components of the national baby corn research system national or state centers, agricultural universities or schools, and the private sector. Professional baby corn researchers and breeders need to become aware of this important fact and interact more actively with farmers in order to improve the productivity of tropical baby corn and make it sustainable on a large scale. When subsistence farmers in the environments listed above receive an improved variety, they are likely to grow it alongside a local variety (Kotru et al., 2012). This allows the cross between both varieties and the resulting product is managed by farmers in the same way as local varieties, selecting the seed of the best plants and ears for the next planting. Quite often, a good breeding scheme does not produce the expected gains because it has a narrow genetic base, limited resources, or poor execution (Rathika et al., 2014). Devi and Singh (2018), pointed out some essential characteristics for the success of baby corn research in developing countries; many of them are still valid and are summarized below.
4.3. The best Baby corn breeding practice from comparing conventional breeding and advanced breeding methods
Dhasarathan et al., (2012) described the growth, current status, and composition of national baby corn research systems in developing countries. This was in contrast to the 81 stations located in the temperate zone in 11 industrialized countries. Furthermore, the way the yield is calculated in units per hectare is not appropriate for the tropics where baby corn is grown in variable environments, with different production cycles and systems, and in which baby corn is included along with other crops.7% of its resources. The dominant characteristic should not be yield, but other characteristics that add adaptability, stability, and superior economic performance under the growing conditions of the farmers for whom they are intended. This does not imply a change in breeding methodologies, but rather emphasizes the need for breeders to maintain constant contact with farmers in the work areas, in order to understand which characteristics are important to them and work for the improvement of them (Thavaprakaash et al., 2005). This disparity of efforts concentrated in tropical and temperate baby corn was even more pronounced when the number of breeders was considered: in tropical countries there were 937, of which 632 were in the public sector and 305 in the private sector; In temperate zone baby corn, a total of 1014 breeders were found in 11 industrialized countries, where the number of them working in the private sector -800- was more than three times higher than that of those working in the public sector -214. Such farmers' varieties often have unique adaptations to the environment, the cropping systems in which they are used and the different uses for which they are put (Brush, 1995). This aspect has been emphasized by ethno botanists to underline the importance and necessity of in situ conservation of diversity (Bhattarai et al., 2018). Since baby corn is an open-pollinated crop, the varieties that were moved to different locations carried considerable genetic diversity, which allowed farmers to put pressure on selection, leading to the development of a large number of races and varieties (Neupane et al., 2017). Efforts for the improvement of baby corn in the tropics are generally planned and executed based on the technologies used by researchers for more uniform and favorable environments to baby corn and that hardly address the real problems of the different and complex tropical environments. For this purpose, sustainers are urgently sought both in one's own garden and on agricultural and horticultural businesses, these seeds can be preserved and propagated. If they have more space available, they should plan at least 50 to 100 plants. 600 baby corn plants on one hectare; enough to continuously contaminate large grow areas. That corresponds to approx (Sundeep and Dawson, 2015). The province of Chihuahua is considered one of the centers of the highest biodiversity for baby corn diversity; there are 23 traditional baby corn varieties and countless local varieties, as well as the wild sweet grass teosinte, from which baby corn was bred thousands of years ago and which easily cross with baby corn to make it more robust. We have been receiving special baby corn varieties in our crop diversity project for many years.5 to 0. Last but not least, the beauty and variety of the pistons and cores is a feast for the eyes (Rakib et al., 2011). Due to the destruction of these cultures, especially in the north of the country through industrial baby corn cultivation. The current practice of baby corn breeding methods
The demographic burden, extreme crashes of natural resources and an eventual ecological collapse may cause a serious agricultural crisis unless we take action now to resolve these issues with paradigm-like science interventions make sure that advanced breeding method is necessary. Bridging yield shortfalls and growing profits through better management methods will help boost productivity by a couple of years. Designing high-yield crops with incorporated higher tolerance to biotin stresses is a challenging challenge. This is especially daunting because plant-pest-natural enemy relationships are volatile in the sense of climate change. In terms of their effect on global production compared with world demand, the economic and social impacts of climate-induced maize distribution shifts would affect their global maize market balance is a great threat. Shift in climate is one driver in the middle of a variety of big long-term trends since the 1970s, growth in grain production and oleaginous seeds has slowed progressively, and while population growth is still sluggish, increased income in development countries particularly raises in global food demand. The opportunity as baby corn in particular has boosted demand directly and indirectly in developed countries by increasing the demand for animal proteins.
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSTİON
There is a greater availability of superior germplasm with a good harvest index and high productivity for tropical environments and the potential for heterosis is beginning to be exploited on a larger scale in developing countries. With the expansion of seed production and commercialization in the public and private sectors, superior hybrids and improved varieties are now more easily available to farmers. All these indicators make baby corn a crop that must be properly exploited in order to feed the growing world population. The largest increases in human and animal food production must come from coarse grains, including baby corn, which have comparative advantages in unfavorable environments. Corn has not yet reached the limit of diffusion in production environments and it is the right time to take advantage of its high production potential in the tropics. Corn, like many other plants, tends to maintain a functional balance between the mass of roots and the green mass of stems and leaves. If one of the soil resources such as water or nutrients were a limiting factor, more assimilated materials would be transferred to the root system and the growth of the roots would be favored over the growth of the rest of the plant. If radiation is the limiting factor for growth, either due to shade or cloudiness, more assimilated materials are dedicated to the growth of the aerial part and the root stem ratio decreases. Temperature is the primary element that influences the development of baby corn. Cultivars are classified as early or late maturing based on their thermal requirements to meet certain stages of development. Thermal time is a measure of the accumulated temperature above a minimum and below a maximum suitable for development. Thermal time units are degree-days. Flowering is generally used as the developmental event that characterizes cultivars as early or late. Cultivars from high tropical zones appear to have a lower base and / or optimum temperatures for development than cultivars adapted to low tropics. Yield is seriously affected by the amount of radiation that the crop accumulates per unit of thermal time. A tropical baby corn generally performs less than its temperate counterpart because temperatures in the tropics are higher and it completes its life cycle in less time. For the same reason, early cultivars yield less than late ones. When the yield is expressed on a daily basis, the yields of the early cultivars are equal to or sometimes greater than those of the late cultivars and tend to have a higher harvest index.
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CONTENTS
List of Tables 6
List of Key Abbreviations 6
Abstract 8 Chapter 1
Introduction 9
Background 11
The agronomy of production 12
Baby Corn Breeding 12
Marketing 13
Chapter 2: Literature rewiev
Distributions 14
Growing Requirements 17
Nutrients 18
Water 19
Plant breeding methods 19
Breeding Technology 20
Methods for the development of inbred lines 24
Recycling lines 25
Evaluation and testing of inbred lines 25
Development and use of testers 26
Expected performance advantage of various types of hybrids 27
Chapter 3: Example Field Study
Methodology 29
Results 31
Chapter 4: Discussion 33
4.1. The threat and opportunity available in both methods 33
4.2. The current practice of baby corn breeding methods both conventional and advanced 34
4.3. The best baby corn breeding practice from comparing conventional breeding and advanced breeding methods 35
Chapter 5: Conclusions 37
References 38
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